The Invention of Paper

Try to imagine life without paper. Even in the era of emails and digital books, paper is all around us. Paper is in shopping bags, money, store receipts, cereal boxes, and toilet paper. We use paper in so many ways every day. So, where did this marvelously versatile material come from? According to ancient Chinese historical sources, a court eunuch named Tsai Lun (or Cai Lun) presented the newly-invented paper to the Emperor Hedi of the Eastern Han Dynasty in 105 CE. The historian Fan Hua (398-445 CE) recorded this version of events, but archaeological finds from western China and Tibet suggest that paper was invented centuries earlier. Samples of even more ancient paper, some of it dating to c. 200 BCE, have been unearthed in the ancient Silk Road cities of Dunhuang and Khotan, and in Tibet. The dry climate in these places allowed the paper to survive for up to 2,000 years without entirely decomposing. Amazingly, some of this paper even has ink marks on it, proving that ink was invented much earlier than historians had supposed. Writing Materials Before  Paper Of course, people in various places around the world were writing long before the invention of paper. Materials such as bark, silk, wood, and leather functioned in a similar way to paper, although they were either much more expensive or heavier. In China, many early works were recorded on long bamboo strips, which were then bound with leather straps or string into books. People world-wide also carved very important notations into stone or bone, or pressed stamps into wet clay and then dried or fired the tablets to preserve their words. However, writing (and later printing) required a material that was both cheap and lightweight to become truly ubiquitous. Paper fit the bill perfectly. Chinese Paper-Making Early paper-makers in China used hemp fibers, which were soaked in water and pounded with a large wooden mallet. The resulting slurry was then poured over a horizontal mold; loosely-woven cloth stretched over a framework of bamboo allowed the water to drip out the bottom or evaporate, leaving behind a flat sheet of dry hemp-fiber paper. Over time, paper-makers began to use other materials in their product, including bamboo, mulberry and different types of tree bark. They dyed paper for official records with a yellow substance, the imperial color, which had the added benefit of repelling insects that might have destroyed the paper otherwise. One of the most common formats for early paper was the scroll. A few long pieces of paper were pasted together to form a strip, which was then wrapped around a wooden roller. The other end of the paper was attached to a thin wooden dowel, with a piece of silk cord in the middle to tie the scroll shut. The Spread of Paper-Making From its point of origin in China, the idea and technology of paper-making spread throughout Asia. In the 500s CE, artisans on the Korean Peninsula began to make paper using many of the same materials as Chinese paper-makers. The Koreans also used rice straw and seaweed, expanding the types of fiber available for paper production. This early adoption of paper fueled the Korean innovations in printing, as well. Metal movable type was invented by 1234 CE on the peninsula. Around 610 CE, according to legend, the Korean Buddhist monk Don-Cho introduced paper-making to the court of Emperor Kotoku in Japan. Paper-making technology also spread west through Tibet and then south into India. Paper Reaches the Middle East and Europe In 751 CE, the armies of Tang China and the ever-expanding Arab Abbasid Empire clashed in the Battle of Talas River, in what is now Kyrgyzstan. One of the most interesting repercussions of this Arab victory was that the Abbasids captured Chinese artisans, including master paper-makers like Tou Houan, and took them back to the Middle East. At that time, the Abbasid Empire stretched from Spain and Portugal in the west through North Africa to Central Asia in the east, so knowledge of this marvelous new material spread far and wide. Before long, cities from Samarkand (now in Uzbekistan) to Damascus and Cairo had become centers of paper production. In 1120, the Moors established Europes first paper mill at Valencia, Spain (then called Xativa). From there, this Chinese invention passed to Italy, Germany, and other parts of Europe. Paper helped spread knowledge, much of which was gleaned from the great Asian culture centers along the Silk Road, that enabled Europes High Middle Ages. Manifold Uses Meanwhile, in East Asia, paper was used for an enormous number of purposes. Combined with varnish, it became beautiful lacquer-ware storage vessels and furniture. In Japan, the walls of homes were often made of rice-paper. Besides paintings and books, paper was made into fans, umbrellas, even highly effective armor. Paper truly is one of the most wonderful Asian inventions of all time.

American Imperialism and the Colonization of the...

American Imperialism and the Colonization of the Philippines The irony of the 1898 Spanish-American war was that Americans fought partly to aid Cubans in the fight for Cuban sovereignty, and the United States ended up colonizing some territories they won from Spain, like the Philippines. Despite America’s previous claims of only supporting independence and democracy, the United States became an imperialist power and colonized the Philippines (Introduction to the Spanish-American war and the Filipino insurgency in the assignment sheet). This led to a Filipino insurgency, led by discontent Filipinos, who fought American troops through guerrilla warfare (Conlin 545). Conlin states that many Americans died fighting against a â€Å"popular†¦show more content†¦President McKinley also believed that America had a duty to â€Å"bring civilization and Christianity to the benighted people of the islands† (McKinley quote, Conlin 582), although Conlin states that many Filipinos were already Christian (Conlin 544). McKinleyâ₠¬â„¢s justification for colonization was that Filipinos were intellectually and morally inferior, so America’s duty was to govern the Philippines and civilize them. McKinley added in his â€Å"Benevolent Assimilation Proclamation† that the Filipinos would be governed by a â€Å"good and stable government† because the Filipinos were incapable of â€Å"overcom[ing] all obstacles† by themselves (Mckinley, Benevolent Assimilation Proclamation 11). Americans argued that the Pacific trade would be important in the future and that Asian markets would be more accessible with the addition of a colony in the Philippines. According to Conlin, many Americans favored a colony in the Philippines because of its economical benefits for America (Conlin 583). Without a base in the Philippines, Americans would feel â€Å"shut out of the Philippines trade† and left with a much weaker â€Å"strategic position in the Pacific† (Conlin 583). According to Beveri dge, â€Å"China is our natural customer,† (Beveridge 14) because of geography and where the countries are located. Americans were producing more goods than their wages would allow them to consume. A Filipino colony would help increase the United States’s trade with AsianShow MoreRelatedWhite Man s Burden By Rudyard Kipling1354 Words   |  6 Pages Imperialism English writer Rudyard Kipling published a very famous poem called â€Å"White Man’s Burden† in 1899 which embodied the European feel of superiority over the indigenous peoples. Kipling published this poem when the Americans were conquering different places. In fact, the original subtitle of this poem was â€Å"The United States and the Philippine Islands.† This was because the United States had acquired the Philippines from Spain after winning the Spanish-American War. Kipling wasRead MoreColonization Or Imperialism Is Done By Treaties Or Agreements?1652 Words   |  7 Pages Colonization Lis Mendez AIU Online Abstract Prior to the modern or new era it was believed that conquers who conquered other lands had the right to take possession of that land, its riches, resources and even the people in order to achieve their own political agenda. Today the concept has changed, colonization or imperialism is done by treaties or agreements, they are acts in which governments negotiate with a less powerful country, they lead them to believe that their colonization willRead MoreThe United States And The Colonization Of The Philippines1239 Words   |  5 PagesIn 1889 America colonize the Philippines because of imperialism. 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The Industrial Revolution brought mass production, which forced the United States to seek a new global marketRead MoreAmerican Contibution to the Philippines1221 Words   |  5 PagesContribution of American to the Philippines 1. Independence  - America helped the Philippines to eliminate the Spaniards in the country thus helping the Filipinos to end the suffering from the Spanish reign. This was the first step of the country to stand on their own and start a new beginning.   2. Government  -we adapted and patterned some of our constitution with the Americans.   3  Sports  - Filipino favourite sport had been basketball, and other foreign sports instead of the national sports whichRead MoreAmerican Imperialism : America s Foreign Policy1045 Words   |  5 PagesAmerican Imperialism America wanted to expand their foreign policy to help boost their economy. They felt threatened because not only did they have to compete with countries like Germany and Japan to secure access to Chinese markets. The first foreign policy the U.S. had was the Monroe Doctrine, which closed the Western Hemisphere to further colonization from European countries. This secured the U.S. foreign trade with Central America. The American foreign policy warned European nations to stayRead More The Colonization of the Philippines Essays1415 Words   |  6 Pages Generally, textbooks, articles, and essays talk about America’s â€Å"occupation,† â€Å"supervision† or â€Å"intervention† in the Philippines. They seem to be afraid to use the word â€Å"colonization.† According to Webster’s Dictionary the definition of colonization is, â€Å"The colonial system of political government or extension of territory, by which one nation exerts political control over another nation, territory, or people, maintaining the colony in a state of dependence, its inhabitants not having the same fullRead MoreThe Treaty Of Paris Of 18981119 Words   |  5 Pages An anonymous solider, while stationed in the Philippines after the Spanish-American War, once said, â€Å"I don’t believe the people of the U.S. understand the condition of things here†¦I have seen enough to almost make me ashamed to call myself an American† (Miller). The Treaty of Paris of 1898 was an agreement made that involved Spain renouncing nearly all of its remaining empire, freeing Cuba, as well as ceding Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the United States. This marked the beginning ofRead MoreCauses Of Imperialism1107 Words   |  5 PagesImperialism Essay Growing up, many children play the board game â€Å"Battleship,† where a player’s main goal is to conquer his opponent’s ships and, eventually, land. Similarly, in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the nation of Europe and other countries took over and influenced countries that they believed were inferior to them. This process, known as imperialism, is defined as â€Å"a policy of extending a countrys power and influence through diplomacy or military force† (googleRead MoreImperialism And The Middle East1226 Words   |  5 PagesImperialism began in the 1870s, European states established vast empires mainly in Africa, but also in Asia and the Middle East. Imperialism can be used as an act of expanding used as an act of developing a country’s empire through the use of force, colonization, or coercion. This method can be used to benefit one or both sides of the process. By means of benefiting one side would be considered as being a world bully because the nation is trying to expand or develop with the help of others without

Match Fixing in Tennis

Question: Discuss about the Match Fixing in Tennis. Answer: Introduction In the past decade, there are 16 players in the tennis sport who have been sent to the tennis integrity unit because of suspicions they have thrown matches. These players were ranked in the top 50 in the matches over the years. The Tennis arena was shocked following reviews that authorities had failed to address full-size fixing, just because the Australian Open, the first ostentatious tournament of the year, kicked off in Melbourne. Professionals said tennis become ripe for corruption because of the benefit of solving a one-on-one recreation, or game. Match fixing has been rampant over the years as the result in the tennis sports appeared to have been manipulated and no results were genuine. The tennis integrity unit is the agency that has been set up to watch over the sport and it has a zero tolerance policy in the approaches to the betting-related corruption. There are many reasons as to why the match-fixing has been an emergent form of corruption in the tennis sports, some of whi ch are discussed in the study. Reasons Why Match-Fixing Has Been Prevalent Business and investment Business and investment has been one of the reasons as to why match-fixing has been rampant. Investors have opened gambling sites where the fans are supposed to place their bets on who will become the winner in the tournament. The investors have been earning much money as people who place wrong bets are losing their money to the investors. People have however taken advantage of the betting and gambling sites and they are using it to carry on their malpractices in the tournaments. In the efforts to fight match-fixing, a gambling site was seen to suspend the bets on the Aussie open match. The suspicions had already been felt in the Australia open earlier in the year (The Guardian, 2015). Owing to this, the betting had to be suspended on grounds of a relatively small-scale mixed doubles match after a large sum of money was flowing in on the obscured match. Suspicions over the alleged match-fixing in the tournament were raised after a big percentage of the bets were flowing in for the pa iring of Andrea Hlavackovaand Luksz Kubot against Lara Arruabarrena and David Marrero. The flowing in of the bets was an indication that the matches had been fixed and something opts to have been done (Hawkins, 2013). Advanced Technology Because of the advanced technology, and the use of internet, match-fixing has been prevalent issue in the tennis sport. As part of their investments, business people have further moved to online platforms and opened online-betting sites where the fans of tennis sport gamble online. As technology is advancing, and he use of digital; devices such as smart phones and tablets, people are now able to bet anywhere and at any time (Blackwood Rubin, 2011). The advanced technology has made it easier for betting to take place as people carry their phones and tablets everywhere they go and they can follow live matches whenever they wish. As such, match-fixing has been prevalent as it is difficult to control the online betting sites because the results can always be manipulated through hacking into the sites and place bets in favor of a particular player. The bets will influence the player as it affects the other player who is bound to lose the tournament following the massive support of the op ponent in the site (Rupert, 2015). Players Race for Fame The players have also been part of the reasons why match-fixing has been emergent in the tennis sport. Some of the players are obsessed in becoming the winner by all means. Most of them are seen going as far as trying to pay off their opponents to lose their match for them. When a case like this is happening, it will be very difficult to find the truth of the matter. As some point in the Australia open, a player was paid a lot of money so he can lose the match for the opponent. Because the player saw this as a malpractice in sport, he chose not to show up for the tournament and never took the offer. Such match-fixing are also there though finding evidence of the same has been a challenge. No player will accept to be named for being paid off to lose his or her tournament. Also no player will agree to be named for paying off the opponent to lose the match for him. Novak Djokovic has revealed that in 2007, he was offered a good amount so he could lose on the first round of the match (Gr asso, 2011). In his response, he never attended the tournament and never considered taking the offer as well. Novak believed that the act was acts of sportsmanship, and a crime in the sport. The scandals in the tennis sport are since becoming big deals with the law. Reports have indicated that the findings in the investigations are more related to the British parliament. The individuals involved in the tennis integrity unit are expected to be invited to hearings. As much as the tennis integrity unit has disciplined the players for fixing, their names are yet to be made known to the public (Bodin Sempe , 2011). Player Safety The players in the field are sometimes forced to involve in the match-fixing activities for fear of their safety. At some occasion, players have been approached and asked to throw their matches at some fee. These people approaching them are either gamblers, or officials from the opponents side (Bell, 2011). In any case the player refuse to take the offer, they are threatened and left with no choice than to obey for fear of their lives. It has been a concern that the gamblers are reaching out to the players even on the tournament sites where sometimes, transactions are seen taking place or in the hotels where the players are residing. In the efforts to find the players involved in the math-fixing, it is also better to look at the other bigger picture. The players are under pressure not because they want to win and take advantage of their short careers, but also because they want to stay safe and financially okay in the sport where corruption has been rampant and has as well been overl ooked (Atkinson, 2009). Lack of Transparency The tennis integrity union has been on zero tolerance on match-fixing; however, their lack of transparency has been another reason why match-fixing has been an emergent issue in the tennis sport. Whenever the union investigated a case on corruption in the sport, the officials never put the names of the culprits on public so they can be known (Andreff Szymanski, 2006). As such, the people involved in the malpractices will still be confident in the sense that they are not known to the public. They still have the courage to face the world in the tournament and claim the titles that might have been achieved through canvassing. It would be best if the tennis integrity union aired the names of the people involved in the match-fixing, it would be easier for them to stay away and never involve in such practices again. Also, airing their names will make the people planning to do the same to avoid doing so and the matches will at least have some transparency (Rowbottom, 2013). Conclusion Business and investment has been one of the reasons as to why match-fixing has been rampant. Investors have opened gambling sites where the fans are supposed to place their bets on who will become the winner in the tournament. Because of the advanced technology, and the use of internet, match-fixing has been prevalent issue in the tennis sport. As part of their investments, business people have further moved to online platforms and opened online-betting sites where the fans of tennis sport gamble online. In the efforts to fight match-fixing, a gambling site was seen to suspend the bets on the Aussie open match. The suspicions had already been felt in the Australia open earlier in the year. Owing to this, a betting site had to suspend the betting on grounds of a relatively small-scale mixed doubles match after a large sum of money was flowing in on the obscured match. References Atkinson, M. (2009).Battleground sports. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. Retrieved from: https://books.google.co.ke/books?id=x61zCgAAQBAJpg=PA164dq=match+fixing+i n+tennis+sportshl=ensa=Xredir_esc=y#v=onepageq=match%20fixing%20in%20t ennis%20sportsf=false Andreff, W., Szymanski, S. (2006).Handbook on the economics of sport. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar. Retrieved From: https://books.google.co.ke/books?id=PGRkblShhU8Cprintsec=frontcoverdq=The+te nnis+integrity+union+has+been+on+zero+tolerance+on+match- fixinghl=ensa=Xredir_esc=y#v=onepageqf=false Bell, D. (2011).Encyclopedia of international games. Jefferson: McFarland. Retrieved from: https://books.google.co.ke/books?id=gjPECwAAQBAJpg=PA64dq=At+some+occasi on,+players+in+tennis+have+been+approached+and+asked+to+throw+their+matches+at +some+fee.hl=ensa=Xredir_esc=y#v=onepageq=At%20some%20occasion%2C %20players%20in%20tennis%20have%20been%20approached%20and%20asked%20to %20throw%20their%20matches%20at%20some%20fee.f=false Bodin, D., Sempe , G. (2011).Ethics and sport in Europe. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Retrieved From: https://books.google.co.ke/books?id=bPwnDJOC75YCpg=PA87dq=match+fixing+in +tennis+sportshl=ensa=Xredir_esc=y#v=onepageq=match%20fixing%20in%20te nnis%20sportsf=false Blackwood, K., Rubin, M. (2011).Casino Gambling For Dummies. Hoboken: John Wiley Sons, Inc. retrieved From: https://books.google.co.ke/books?id=5YqAhPnYqPYCpg=PA16dq=online- betting+sites+where+the+fans+of+tennis+sport+gamble+online.hl=ensa=Xredir_es c=y#v=onepageq=online- betting%20sites%20where%20the%20fans%20of%20tennis%20sport%20gamble%20onl ine.f=false Grasso, J. (2011).Historical dictionary of tennis. Lanham, Md: Scarecrow Press. Retrieved From: https://books.google.co.ke/books?id=W39oSS7c2xACpg=PA42dq=Novak+Djokovic +has+revealed+that+in+2007,+he+was+offered+a+good+amount+so+he+could+lose+on +the+first+round+of+the+match.hl=ensa=Xredir_esc=y#v=onepageq=Novak%2 0Djokovic%20has%20revealed%20that%20in%202007%2C%20he%20was%20offered %20a%20good%20amount%20so%20he%20could%20lose%20on%20the%20first%20ro und%20of%20the%20match.f=false Hawkins, E. (2013).Bookie gambler fixer spy: A journey to the heart of cricket's underworld. London : Bloomsbury, 2013. Retrieved From : https://books.google.co.ke/books?id=ZmU3nqi- nX4Cprintsec=frontcoverdq=match+fixing+in+tennis+sportshl=ensa=Xredir_e sc=y#v=onepageqf=false Rowbottom, M. (2013).Foul play: The dark arts of cheating in sport. London ; New York : Bloomsbury, 2013. Retrieved From: https://books.google.co.ke/books?id=lMMYN0jY2u8Cprintsec=frontcoverdq=match +fixing+in+tennis+sportshl=ensa=Xredir_esc=y#v=onepageq=match%20fixing% 20in%20tennis%20sportsf=false Rupert N., Owen G. (2015) Jack Warner: former kingpin spends night in jail after corruption arrest, The Guardian. Retrieved From: https://www.theguardian.com/football/2015/may/28/former-fifa-kingpin-jack-warner- spends-night-in-jail-after-corruption-arrest The Guardian (2015) Turkish court charges 15 more in Fenerbahce match-fixing scandal, Retrieved September 21, 2016. Retrieved From: https://www.theguardian.com/football/2011/jul/07/turkey-match-fixing.

Object-Oriented Programming Vs. Procedural Programming Essays

Object-Oriented Programming Vs. Procedural Programming It was way back in the 1970's when Kernighan and Ritchie were working on creating a new programming language they would soon call C. It was called this because a language called B preceded it. C was created with simplicity and flexibility in mind. Its primary use was for writing operating systems, however it became popular for a wide variety of other programs. The one thing that C lacked was support for objects; it was a procedural-oriented program. In a procedural-based programming language, a programmer writes out instructions that are followed by a computer from start to finish. This kind of programming had its advantages, but an object-oriented language makes programming clearer and easier to understand. Object-oriented software is all about using objects. An object actually contains code (member functions) and data (data members). Traditionally, code and data have been kept apart. For example, in the C language, units of code are called functions, while units of data are called structures. Functions and structures are not formally connected in C. A C function can operate on more than one type of structure, and more than one function can operate on the same structure. In object-oriented programming, code and data are merged into a single indivisible thing -- an object. This has some big advantages. A primary rule of object-oriented programming is this: as the user of an object, you should never need to peek inside the box. The way objects work are that a message is sent in and the object knows how to handle it. Thus the user never needs to see the implementation details. By not knowing what is going on inside an object, the user is unable to change the internal implementation code. Providing access to an object only through its messages, while keeping the details private is called encapsulation. The benefits of objects do not stop with encapsulation. Objects also have the special ability to inherit functionality from other objects. When thinking about inheritance and objects, it is useful to distinguish between an is a relationship and a has a relationship because objects can have both types of relationship with each other. If the relationship between class 1 and class 2 can be said, as ?class 1 is a class 2,? then class 2 can derive from class one. If class 2 ?has a? class 1 you use composition to put a class 1 object into class 2 as a data member. So, one may ask, ?What is the benefit of inheritance Well, with inheritance, if you find that someone has already developed an object that is mostly what you need, you can easily add new features without breaking the old ones. In other words, inheritance allows you to easily reuse code. The last aspect of object-oriented programming is polymorphism. Objects are smart enough to be dynamic. Specifically, they have the ability to react differently depending on the situation. Well using polymorphism, an object can be made to handle any scenario with the exact same method name. Thus, depending on what the object is asked to print, it will be able to print it. Polymorphism refers to the ability of an object to have numerous methods with the same name. This is also referred to as method overloading. An object can have multiple methods with the same name but different parameter lists. The appropriate method to execute is chosen at run-time depending on which parameter list is provided in the method call. Instead of having separate methods like printPicture(), printLetters(), and printNumbers() you have one unified print() and the object itself determines how to handle the different types of situations. Perhaps the most serious limitation of procedural programming is the tendency for large procedural-based programs to turn into spaghetti-code. Spaghetti code is code that has been modified so many times that the logical flow shown in the figures above becomes so convoluted that any new programmer coming onto the project needs a two month prep-course in order to even begin to understand the software innards. Thus, an object-oriented approach is taken to limit this so called ?spaghetti-code.? In object-oriented programming, you build small, self-contained bits of code, which correspond more closely to how you